A Treatise on Baking

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Chapter XV

MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION

MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION

I. THE STALING OF BREAD

A. FOREWORD

The ability of the loaf to retain its freshness for a considerable period of time is a very essential quality characteristic of Bread and has an important bearing on bread sales.

It is therefore advisable for the baker to understand just what staling actually is, the controllable factors influencing staling and the results of recent research work on this problem inasmuch as such information should prove helpful in prolonging the freshness of the loaf.

B. DEFINITION AND EXPLANATION OF STALING

It is rather difficult to define staleness fully in a few words. From the standpoint of the consumer, bread is considered stale when,—measured by the sense of feeling and taste by contact with the skin and palate, it appears dry, harsh, and not acceptable as fresh. There are, of course, various degrees of staleness and there exists no absolutely definite dividing line between the so-called freshness and staleness of the loaf. In general, however, bread which is termed fresh possesses a crumb which is somewhat translucent,—elastic and springy, while the crumb of stale bread is more opaque and at first tough,—then later crumbly, or hard with a noticeable lack of flavor.

C. THE DIRECT CAUSES OF STALENESS IN BREAD

Most people are naturally inclined to believe that staling is due entirely to moisture drying out of the loaf merely because as bread becomes stale it becomes harder and apparently drier. However, a study of this problem indicates that the mere loss of moisture is not the sole factor in causing staleness, inasmuch as a loaf which has become stale can be brought back to a state of temporary freshness by reheating for a few moments in the oven.

While various opinions have been expressed concerning the exact cause of staling, one of the most popular theories accepted and quoted by many scientific writers is the one advanced by Katz and Oswald and described in Publication No. 1 of the Food Research Institute of Stanford University, California, entitled “Stale Bread Loss as a Problem of the Baking Industry,” prepared, by J. S. Davis and W. Eldred.

According to this theory, much of the moisture contained in bread is held by the starch which has been gelatinized in baking and when the loaf comes out of the oven, the gelatinized starch which is distributed throughout the loaf contains the maximum amount of moisture. Then while some of the moisture does disappear from the loaf by evaporation as the bread stands, some of the moisture contained in the starch jelly is said to pass out of the gelatinized starch and is absorbed by other constituents of the loaf especially the coagulated gluten. The result of this migration of moisture from the starch to the gluten of the loaf is claimed to be largely responsible for the gradual development of staleness.

D. PRACTICAL CONTROLLABLE FACTORS INFLUENCING STALING

While the various theories regarding the direct cause of staling are interesting, the baker is undoubtedly primarily interested in various steps and methods which may be adopted in connection with the commercial making of bread that will result in a loaf of good keeping qualities. Some of these are as follows:—

1. Ingredients

It is quite generally understood that inferior ingredients cannot be transformed into a loaf of superior quality. This is particularly true in regard to the ability of the loaf to retain its oven freshness. In striving to produce a loaf of good keeping qualities, it is essential that the proper amount of absorption be determined and adhered to in mixing the dough. The generous use of milk and shortening also aids in retarding staling.

The use of Arkady increases the hydration of the gluten so that less additional moisture can pass into it from the starch during the period of time between the baking of the loaf and its actual consumption in the home. Diamalt is rich in malt sugar which is hygroscopic or in other words, possesses the peculiar ability to absorb and retain moisture. This naturally aids in prolonging the freshness of the loaf.

2. Mixing of the Dough

For bread to retain its freshness, the dough should be properly mixed. Care should be taken, however, to guard against over-mixing as well as to prevent the doughs from warming up too much during mixing inasmuch as this would tend toward the production of a sticky dough—probably due to a partial breaking down of the gluten.

The maintenance of a relatively low dough temperature during and after mixing aids materially in the production of a loaf of superior keeping qualities.

The use of ice in the mixer or some other means of keeping the dough cool during mixing is helpful in this connection,—especially during the warm summer months.

3. Fermentation, Conditioning and Proofing

A short time dough made by the straight dough method is most conducive to the production of a loaf which will retain its freshness.

The maintenance of vigorous, healthy fermentation and conditioning of the dough brought about by the liberal use of yeast and at the same time keeping the dough cool and employing the full amount of salt will result in a loaf of better keeping qualities. In this connection, it is also Very essential for the dough to be taken slightly on the “young” side.

Over-aging of the dough is one very common reason for the rapid staling of the baked loaf.

Unduly high temperatures during proofing accomplishes the same thing as over-aging. With an over proofed dough the resulting loaf will usually be of coarse grain and will lose moisture more rapidly than a loaf which has been properly proofed.

4. Baking

If the mixing and fermentation are correct, the next point to check is the baking. Beware of ovens having a temperature which is too low. In the first place, bread going into such an oven springs very high in the oven, and the effect is the same as that of overproofing. Then, instead of getting a good brisk bake, the loaf stands there much longer, and actually dries out during baking.

II. BREAD STANDARDS AND DEFINITIONS

The following standard definitions of various kinds of bread as published by the U. S. Department of Agriculture are of interest to the baker.

A. BREAD

Bread is the sound product made by baking a dough consisting of a leavened or unleavened mixture of ground grain and/or other clean, sound, edible farinaceous substance, with potable water, and with or without the addition of other edible substances.

In the United States the name “bread,” unqualified, is understood to mean wheat bread, white bread.

B. WHEAT BREAD, WHITE BREAD

Wheat Bread, White Bread, is the bread obtained by baking Wheat Bread Dough in the form of a loaf or of rolls or other units smaller than a loaf. It contains, one hour or more after baking, not more than thirty-eight per cent (38%) of moisture, as determined upon the entire loaf or other unit.

C. MILK BREAD

Milk Bread is the bread obtained by baking a wheat bread dough in which not less than one-third (¹⁄₃) of the water ingredient has been replaced by milk or the constituents of milk solids in proportions normal for whole milk. It conforms to the moisture limitation for Wheat Bread.

D. RYE BREAD

Rye Bread is the bread obtained by baking a dough which differs from Wheat Bread Dough in that not less than one-third (¹⁄₃) of the flour ingredient has been replaced by rye flour. It conforms to the moisture limitation for Wheat Bread.

E. RAISIN BREAD

Raisin Bread is the bread obtained by baking Wheat Bread Dough, to which have been added sound raisins in quantity equivalent to at least three (3) ounces for each pound of the baked product and which may contain proportions of sweetening and shortening ingredients greater than those commonly used in Wheat Bread Dough.

F. BROWN BREAD, BOSTON BROWN BREAD

Brown Bread, Boston Brown Bread, is a bread made from rye and corn meals, with or without flour, whole-wheat flour, and/or rye flour, with molasses, and in which chemical leavening agents, with or without sour milk, are commonly used instead of yeast.

In some localities the name “brown bread” is used to designate a bread obtained by baking a dough which differs from Wheat Bread Dough in that a portion of the flour ingredient has been replaced by whole-wheat flour.

III. VIENNA—FRENCH BREAD—HARD CRUST ROLLS

Vienna Bread differs in nearly every shop, and in many bakeries is far from being the genuine article.

It is made over the Straight and Sponge Dough methods, formulas for which appear in Part Two.

Vienna Bread requires a semi-tight dough and more age than for Pan Bread.

Likewise for best results, a good supply of low pressure steam for the oven is indispensable.

It was the carefulness of the Vienna baker, together with the good material employed that made his loaf famous. It is chiefly care and workmanship that give Vienna Bread its quality.

After the loaves are moulded, they are laid, smooth side down, on cloth-covered boards, with the cloth pinched up between the loaves, and allowed to rest until double in size; then cut and baked with good supply of steam. If no steam is available, wash with water before cutting the loaves.

Other bakers lay the loaves in boxes or on boards in specially built covers, dusting the boards with corn flour, rice polish, flour or finely ground Bread crumbs, setting loaves far enough apart to prevent sticking. If boxes or boards are used, in this manner, loaves must be laid smooth side up.

The most modern way is to use the patent peel, putting six loaves on a peel. The peels must be carefully dusted and the loaves shifted by means of a little board after they have rested about 10 minutes on the peels. This is done by moving a loaf a little, first from one, then back the reverle, first from one, then back the reverse side so that the flour is distributed and loaves will peel off easily when put in the oven.

The peels themselves are put on racks and placed in proof box the same as Pan Bread. Be careful to have proof box moderately cool and free of live steam—that means not too moist.

For further information see formulas Part Two.

French Bread is handled in much the same manner, only requiring a little softer dough.

Hard Crust Rolls can be made to good advantage from either French or Vienna dough.

IV. RYE FLOUR AND RYE BREAD

A. RYE FLOUR

Rye Flour is flour secured from the milling of the rye berry or grain. While the composition of rye is quite similar to that of wheat, insofar as the actual amount of moisture, protein, carbohydrate, fat and ash are concerned, the nature or kind of protein in wheat and rye are quite different.

While some of the gluten components are present in rye, it is a well known fact that when rye flour is made into a dough by the addition of water, it does not form gluten such as that which is formed when wheat flour is treated in the same manner.

Hence, in making rye bread, some wheat flour is necessarily used as a source of gluten so that a porous well risen loaf may result.

If rye flour were used alone, the loaf secured, would naturally be heavy and somewhat soggy, with a consequent impairment of its palata-bility and digestibility.

As stated elsewhere in this chapter, the government definition of rye bread states that the rye dough from which it is made differs from Wheat Bread Dough, in that not less than¹⁄₃ of the flour ingredient has been replaced by rye flour. Rye is milled into flours of different grades such as rye patent flour, rye straight flour and various dark rye flours.

B. POINTS OF INTEREST CONCERNING THE MAKING OF RYE BREAD

There are many different kinds of rye bread made and sold in this country, ranging from dark, sour rye to a very light rye loaf, closely resembling our white bread. The type or types of rye bread selling best in one territory may be quite different from those demanded in other territories. This naturally depends upon the tastes and customs of the people in each locality. The progress which any baker is able to make with his rye bread is largely dependent on his ability to produce a high quality rye loaf of the kind or kinds which are most desired in his particular vicinity. The formulas and methods of making several typical kinds of quality rye bread are described in Part Two of this treatise.

Like any other bakery products, quality rye bread of any kind can only be made from quality ingredients, properly handled.

The flavor of rye bread depends largely upon the process of fermentation employed and on the quantity as well as the quality of the wheat flour used for the blend.

Rye Flour is more fermentive than white wheat flour. A common error in the making of rye bread is “over-aging” of the dough. Hence it is advisable to use more salt than is used in ordinary white bread doughs. The stiffness of rye dough must be regulated according to the strength and absorption of the flour used. A soft rye dough makes the best Bread.

The fermentation period of rye doughs, especially those in which “sour” is used must be carefully watched and regulated. The natural acidity of the “sour” used exercises an accelerating effect on the conditioning of the dough. In many cases, the acidity of the “sour” used varies from day to day, thereby influencing the fermentation period accordingly. This is merely another reason why such rye doughs should be watched carefully and “taken” when ready in order to produce rye bread of uniform quality. The “sour dough” should be kept cool and not too slack.

In some instances, the desire to secure large volume of the rye loaf has resulted in increasing the amount of white flour used in the rye dough to such an extent that the resulting product more nearly resembles white bread than it does a true rye loaf.

While a certain amount of steam is used in the oven during the baking of rye bread, care should be taken to avoid the use of excessive steam.

V. BAKE SHOP SANITATION

A. IMPORTANCE OF CLEANLINESS IN THE BAKERY

Utmost cleanliness and sanitation is not only an important factor in the successful operation of any bakery but it is absolutely indispensable from every angle. It is an economic necessity. This applies to the bakery itself, all equipment, the storage and handling of all materials and bakery products, delivery equipment, salesroom and all employees. A quality product made and handled in a sanitary manner is a sales builder, and as a general rule, it is impossible to produce a uniform high quality food product if cleanliness does not prevail throughout its manufacture.

B. ADVANTAGES OF CLEANLINESS FROM A PRODUCTION STANDPOINT

The maintenance of a clean, well lighted and well ventilated bakery has a very decided influence on increasing the efficiency of operation.

Spoilage of materials is often prevented and the bakery is kept free from germs and insects. Furthermore, the employees in the bakery will be more careful about their work and will naturally perform their respective duties more willingly and to better advantage if utmost cleanliness and sanitation are adhered to.

Incidentally, the periodical physical examination of all employees, ample provision for clean locker rooms and toilet facilities as well as a regulation requiring each employee to change from street clothes to clean, washable, working uniforms,—not only safeguards the health of the worker,—but also protects the health of the customer.

C. ADVERTISING AND SALES VALUE OF CLEANLINESS

Furthermore, cleanliness itself furnishes the baker with a very valuable advertising and sales feature and should be utilized as such in the following manner:

If the bakery is kept spotlessly clean throughout, the baker should not hesitate to invite the housewife to visit the bakery and witness for

herself the extreme care which is taken in making the baked goods which are available to her fresh daily. Nothing impresses the modern discriminating housewife more forcefully than cleanliness and neatness. If she sees that a bakery is operated in this manner, she will become a permanent customer and will purchase more bakery products just because she knows that all ingredients as well as the finished baked goods are handled with the same care that she uses in her own kitchen. If for any reason the housewife gets the idea that scrupulous cleanliness does not prevail in the making and handling of bakery products, she is quite “unsold” and immediately represents a lost customer whose trade will be next to impossible to regain.

The same rule holds just as true for the bakery sales room, delivery equipment and salesgirl or salesman as it does for the bakery proper.

Aside from the necessity of cleanliness from a practical standpoint, its advertising and sales value more than pays for the cost of maintaining such a condition.

D. ADHERENCE TO STATE LAWS ON SANITATION IN BAKERIES

Of course, there are various state laws dealing with certain sanitary measures which have to be enforced in every bakery. The proprietor of a bakery therefore, should become familiar with these rules and see that they are strictly lived up to in his bakery. More than this, he should be sure that every precaution is taken to create such a perfect condition of cleanliness that it will be an obvious outstanding factor to everyone who visits his salesroom or bakery.

E. STERILIZATION OF BAKERY PRODUCTS DURING BAKING. IMPORTANCE OF SANITARY HANDLING OF BAKERY PRODUCTS

While it is a well known fact that bakery products are sterilized by the heat of the oven, it is quite possible for such goods to be contaminated after they leave the oven by careless handling either in the bakery, during delivery or while in the sales room or grocery store. Therefore, due care should be taken to make sure that such products are handled in a clean manner after leaving the oven. All delivery equipment should be inspected regularly and kept in a spotless condition. The same holds true for all bread boxes or other containers carrying bakery products. In like manner, the employees handling these goods should be required to be very careful regarding their personal appearance.

If the sales girl or salesman is untidy, naturally the customer or prospective customer gets the impression that a similar condition of carelessness exists throughout the bakery and in this way much harm is done to the business.

VI. INSECTS

A. THE IMPORTANCE OF KEEPING THE BAKERY FREE FROM INSECTS

Every baker, of course, recognizes the importance of keeping insects out of the bakery. However, it is quite possible that some bakers may

not realize the extent of the damage and harm which can result from the presence in the bakery of such ordinary insects as ants, flies, cockroaches, so called “Silver Fishes” and similar insects.

In general, the evil results caused by such insects may be listed as follows:

1. The presence of such insects frequently indicates a condition of uncleanliness which in itself is undesirable and detrimental.
2. Insects feeding on raw material such as flour sometimes cause a loss of such material, thus representing an unnecessary waste.
3. If insects get into the shop or raw material they may get into the doughs and thus be present in some of the final baked goods.      The customer receiving such goods naturally will be lost forever insofar as the particular bakery in question is concerned.        Furthermore, if she spreads the news regarding her discovery to other customers or prospective customers, irreparable damage is done.
4. The trouble and cost of getting rid of insects after they have once gained entrance into the bakery is much greater than the trouble and cost of preventing them from getting into the bakery.

B. PREVENTION OF INSECTS

1. Conditions Favoring Growth of Insects

Insects thrive and multiply rapidly if supplied with food, warmth and a moderate amount of moisture. The average temperature and humidity of the bakery is conducive to the growth of insects and of course, the flour and certain other materials on hand are ideal food for them. Hence if insects gain entrance to the bakery, the prevailing conditions usually result in their multiplication, unless immediate steps are taken to eliminate them. Thus, the importance of preventing them from entering the bakery can be readily understood.

A temperature of about 80 degrees F. encourages the growth of insects. However, most of them die in a few hours if a temperature of 120 degrees to 140 degrees is maintained.

In addition to good clean food such as flour,—insects also will thrive on filth or decaying organic material.

2. Construction of Building

Insects frequently grow and multiply in cracks and crevices which are difficult to keep clean and free from dirt. Therefore, this point should be kept in mind in building the bakery. It should be constructed in such a manner and with the proper materials so that cracks and crevices in the floors, walls or in and about the plumbing will be avoided. The installation of tightly fitting screens will aid in keeping out flies and some of the larger insects which might invade the bakery.

3. Care in Handling and Storage of Raw Materials

Insects are sometimes carried into the bakery by raw material.

Therefore, all such material which is possible of carrying such insects should be carefully examined when received, and if contaminated with insects of any sort, such material should not be placed in the storage room or used. Furthermore, frequent inspection should be made of material held in storage and if at any time insects are noticed, such material should be removed so as to avoid the multiplication of the insects and their spreading to other materials and other sections of the bakery.

When flour sacks are emptied they should be immediately cleaned and should not be stored anywhere near the flour retained in storage. Such sacks should be examined frequently to make sure that no insects have developed in them. If insects have made their appearance in the empty flour sacks, such sacks should be placed on boards and put in the oven, maintained at the average baking temperature for from 5 to 10 minutes. Of course, the temperature of the oven should not be high enough to scorch the sacks. Such treatment will usually kill the insects provided the sacks are not placed more than two or three deep on the boards in the oven.

Flour and similar material should be stored in such a manner that the space underneath and about the sacks can be readily cleaned. Undue dampness of course, should be avoided.

4. General Cleanliness and Elimination of Breeding Places for Insects

Inasmuch as insects live and thrive mainly on food which has accumulated in cracks and crevices, it is very important that all parts of the bakery be kept clean. All cracks, corners and crevices should be kept free from particles of dirt, flour, crumbs, old dough or similar material.

Frequently, insects infesting a bakery originate from an ideal breeding place in the immediate neighborhood of the bakery. Therefore, care should be taken to be sure that the premises outside of the bakery are kept clean and free from accumulated rubbish, filth or organic matter in which such insects develop.

C. THE ELIMINATION OF INSECTS AFTER ONCE APPEARING IN THE BAKERY

1. General Measures to be Taken

Of course, as explained above, the easiest way of eliminating the problem of insects is to take the preliminary steps necessary to prevent their appearance in the bakery. However, if they have gained entrance into the storage room, bakeshop or salesroom, the measurers previously explained should be put into operation at once, and all infected materials removed from the bakery.

2. Heat Treatment

In a bulletin published by the U. S. Department of Agriculture, a very simple method of heat treatment for killing flour beetles and other insects infecting mills or flour storage rooms has been explained. If the building is tightly closed and then the temperature brought up to about 125 degrees F. and maintained for several hours, it will be found that most of the insects have been killed. Combating insects in this manner, however, can only be accomplished in those cases where it is possible to maintain the heat condition required. This naturally can be done more easily in the summer time. While such heat treatment for a few hours is probably not detrimental to the baking qualities of the flour, it is advisable, where possible, to conduct such heating when there is little flour on hand in storage.

The insects hiding in cracks and crevices will usually feel the increasing warmth and come out, thereby exposing themselves to the greater heat which eventually kills them.

3. Use of Disinfectants and Insecticides

Certain harmless disinfectant solutions recommended for the extermination of insects in bakeries and similar establishments often prove very effective and are frequently used as a wash for the walls and floors. However, great care should be exercised in avoiding the use of materials for this purpose which are also poisonous to man.

A very common ingredient of many commercial disinfectants is sodium fluoride.

4. Fumigation

Fumigation by the use of different kinds of fumigating material resulting in the production of a vapor which kills weevils and other insects is often resorted to. However, many of these fumigating materials are injurious to food products and machinery and also poisonous. They should be handled only by experts.

D. SPECIAL MEASURES AGAINST DIFFERENT INSECTS

In eliminating insects, it will be easier to consider the three or four principal kinds of insects which may appear in the bakery. This is taken up in the following paragraphs:

1. Flies

Flies particularly seem to thrive best on filth. Therefore, if any such breeding place exists near the bakery it should be removed. The use of fly-paper, fly traps and harmless spray preparations will aid in removing the flies already in the bakery. At the same time, all windows and doors should be tightly screened. In some cases it has been possible to install equipment which blows clean air into the bakery,—thus continually forcing air outward through doors and windows. This rather unusual practice will aid in eliminating flies and also in preventing them from entering the bakery.

2. Ants

Ants usually live in nests built either in rotten or decayed wood or in the soil, and travel away from the nest in search of food. Therefore, the best way to eliminate ants is to locate the nest and to remove the same or kill the ants contained therein. The location of the nests of ants may be determined by placing some finely granulated sugar in various spots on the floor of the bakery and then observing if possible, the direction in which the ants carry the tiny granules of sugar, and their final destination. The ants in the nest or nests can then be killed with boiling water or with kerosene. Sometimes certain poisonous or inflammable solutions are used and are very effective for this purpose but naturally the use of such solutions is very dangerous in or about the bakery. After killing the ants, the nesting places should be eliminated if possible.

Non poisonous insect powder or sodium fluoride spread about in corners, cracks and crevices infected with ants, aids in killing them.

Other agents said to be effective in eliminating ants are borax, powdered mustard and powdered cloves.

If sponges are soaked in a dilute sugar solution and then placed wherever the ants are found in the bakery, it will be noticed that the holes in the sponges will soon become filled with ants. Then if these sponges are immersed in boiling water, the ants thus entrapped will be killed.

3. Cockroaches

Cockroaches thrive best in places which are quite warm, where there is considerable moisture and where they can secure ample food such as flour particles, dough, bread crumbs, etc.

Cockroaches are most usually found near water pipes, sinks or other plumbing. They usually hide in dark cracks in the day time and come out at night. Hence it is important that the plumbing system be installed so as to eliminate enclosures, cracks, corners, etc., thus facilitating easy cleaning and preventing the development of roaches. These insects or bugs travel rapidly. In order to combat them successfully, it is necessary to treat all parts of the bakery at the same time.

In order to exterminate these insects, fumigation is sometimes employed. More often however, a very effective insecticide powder containing sodium fluoride is used. Care should be taken to keep this powder from getting in contact with any material used in bakery products. However, it takes only a tiny amount to kill a cockroach. In using sodium fluoride, which is a powder, it is usually mixed with an equal amount of flour or starch and spread in places throughout the bakery, especially in cracks and crevices where they have been seen. The flour or starch as a source of food in the mixture attracts the cockroaches and then the sodium fluoride powder kills them. Incidentally, such a mixture will also kill other undesirable insects as well. Powdered borax is an effective exterminator for roaches and a mixture consisting of 7 parts of borax, 2 parts of starch and 1 part of cocoa may be used to good advantage.

4. Flour Weevils

The problem of flour weevils or beetles like other insects is best solved by preventing them from getting into the bakery. This as explained previously, can be done provided the flour is carefully inspected before being stored. If weevils do become apparent, the contaminated flour should be removed at once and the storage room should be subjected to the heat treatment previously described or fumigated. If fumigation is resorted to, the fumigating vapors thus produced should not come in contact with any of the food material. Sulphur fumigation will attack metals and therefore, when used all metal parts of machinery should be covered with a film of vaseline which is later removed by a thorough cleaning. There are other fumigants available, many of which are extremely poisonous and which should only be handled by an expert.

5. Silver Fishes

Silver fishes are small, flat, grey colored insects having no wings. Protruding from the head of these insects are two long whiskers or antenna. Silver fishes run very rapidly, even faster than cockroaches. They usually live in warm places and often are found in the neighborhood of the oven, and live on organic matter, flour, starch, etc. These insects are killed by sodium fluoride applied and used in the same manner as that described for cockroaches.

E. RATS AND MICE

While rats and mice cannot be classed as insects, nevertheless, they are pests which should be kept out of the bakery because of the obvious harm which they do.

The best precaution against rats and mice is to “build them out,”—that is, to be sure that the construction of the bakery is such that they can not get into the bakery.

In combating rats and mice, the use of traps are usually of considerable help. After each “catch” the traps should be sterilized by placing in boiling water.

The use of rat poison is very dangerous in a bakery and is not to be recommended. Furthermore, such poisons often cause the rats to die in the building, between walls, underneath floors, etc., thus resulting in an objectionable unsanitary condition.

VII. EXPRESSION OF FORMULAS

A. FOREWORD

Along with the progress of the science of bread making—the manner of expressing formulas has become more simple, more scientific and more accurate. Years ago, it was quite customary to express formulas by the pail or bucket method and by the gallon method. These methods are still used today to some extent and therefore warrant explanation. However, in most instances, these older methods of expressing formulas have been replaced by the percentage system or pound system, due to the obvious advantages of these more modern methods of expression.

B. PAIL SYSTEM

1. Explanation

According to this system the “pail” of water or other liquid used in the dough batch is taken as the basis of measurement. However, there are pails of various sizes or capacities used in bakeries, i.e., 10 quart, 12 quart or 14 quart pails.

Naturally, therefore, the amount of other ingredients used will depend on the size of the particular pail employed. Hence if any formula

is printed using the pail system of expression,—the size of the pail used should be stated.

A formula in which 1 pail of water is employed is termed a “one pail formula,” and a formula calling for 6 pails of water is termed a “six pail formula.” The remainder of the ingredients employed are expressed in terms of pounds and ounces. For instance, the following formula is expressed according to the pail system, using a 12 quart pail:

Water	1	pail (12 qt.)
Flour	40	lbs.
Salt	13	oz.
Yeast	13	oz.
Malt	13	oz.
Sugar	13	oz.
Shortening	13	oz.

The above is a one pail formula. By multiplying the amount of each ingredient by 2 it becomes a 2 pail formula.

2. Conversion of “Pail” Formula to 100 Pound Flour Basis

If it were desired to change this formula so that 100 lbs. of flour would be used, the amount of each ingredient shown above should be multiplied by 2½. The rule for converting a one pail formula into a formula expressed on the basis of 100 pounds of flour proceed as follows:

Divide 100 by the number of pounds of flour called for in the one pail formula.

Multiply the amount of each ingredient specified in the one pail formula by this number and in this way the formula will then be stated on the basis of 100 pounds of flour used.

3. Calculation of Number of Pails Required to Produce a Specified Amount of Bread

In cases where the pail system is used and it is desired to know how many “pails” to be used in making up the dough in order to produce a certain number of loaves of a given weight proceed as follows:

Determine the number of loaves produced from a “one pail” batch of dough.

Divide the number of loaves desired by the number secured from a “one pail” batch. This gives the number of “pails” to be used in making up the proper amount of dough. For instance, if a one pail batch of dough yields forty 1½lb. loaves and it is desired to produce one hundred 1½lb. loaves, proceed as follows:

100 ÷ 40 = 2½

Therefore, a 2½ pail batch of dough should be made up. This means that the amount of each ingredient specified in the “one pail” formula will have to be multiplied by 2½.

4. Weight of Pail of Water

• 1 quart of water weighs 2 lbs. 1¹⁄₃ oz.
• A 10 quart pail of water contains 20 lbs. 14 oz. water
• A 12 quart pail of water contains 25 lbs. water
• A 14 quart pail of water contains 29 lbs. 3 oz. water

C. GALLON SYSTEM

1. Explanation

According to the gallon system of expressing formulas, the basis of measurement is the amount of water used stated in terms of gallons, the remaining ingredients being stated as pounds and ounces.

For instance, an example of a one gallon bread formula would be as follows:

Water	1	gallon
Flour	13½	lbs.
Salt	4	oz.
Yeast	4	oz.
Malt	4	oz.
Sugar	4	oz.
Shortening	4	oz.

Now if it is desired to convert the above 1 gallon formula to a 6 gallon formula, merely multiply the amount of each ingredient listed above by 6. The result is shown below:

2. Conversion of Formula Expressed on Gallon Basis to Basis of 100 Pounds Flour

If it is desired to convert a one gallon formula to a formula of the same proportionate composition but containing 100 lbs. of flour proceed as follows:

Divide 100 by the actual number of pounds of flour specified in the 1 gallon formula.

Multiply the amount of each ingredient specified in the one gallon formula by the number thus secured and the resulting formula will then be on the basis of 100 lbs. of flour.

For instance, if it is desired to convert the one gallon formula previously listed to a formula to contain 100 lbs. of flour the following procedure is carried out:

   100 ÷ 13½ = 7.4

Then the new formula is calculated as follows:

3. Calculation of Number of Gallons Required to Produce Specified Amount of Bread

In cases where the gallon system is used and it is desired to know how many “gallons” of water to be used in making up the dough in order to produce a certain number of loaves of a given weight, proceed as follows:

Determine the number of loaves of that weight which are produced from a “one gallon” batch of dough.

Divide the number of loaves desired by the number secured from a one gallon batch. This gives the number of “gallons” to be used in order to produce the required amount of bread.

For instance, if a one gallon batch of dough yields 20 one pound loaves and it is desired to make up a dough to yield 120 one pound loaves, proceed as follows:

120 ÷ 20 = 6

Therefore, a six gallon dough must be made up.

4. Weight of Gallon of Water

1 gallon of water weighs 8¹⁄₃ lbs. or 8 lbs. 5 oz.

1 quart of water weighs 2 lbs. 1¹⁄₃ oz.

1 pint of water weighs 1 lb.²⁄₃ oz.

D. ONE HUNDRED POUNDS FLOUR BASIS OF EXPRESSING FORMULA

This is a very simple, accurate and common method of expressing bread formulas. One hundred pounds of flour is used as the basis of measurement and all other ingredients are stated accordingly in pounds and ounces.

An example of a bread formula expressed in this manner is as follows:

A formula expressed as shown above can be enlarged or reduced provided the proportion of ingredients is kept the same.

E. PERCENTAGE SYSTEM OF EXPRESSING FORMULAS

1. Explanation

The percentage system of expressing formulas is in quite general use today.

The number of pounds of flour used is taken as a basis and is termed 100%. All other ingredients are expressed in terms of “per cents” based on the weight of the flour.

In other words, in any given formula the amount of flour is called 100 %, and the percentage of each other ingredient is secured by multiplying the number of pounds of each ingredient by 100 and then dividing the result secured in each case by the actual total amount of pounds of flour used.

For instance, if a formula calls for 400 pounds of flour and 240 pounds of water, the percentage of water is calculated by multiplying 240 by 100 and then dividing by 400. Thus the water used in such a formula is expressed as 60%.

The conversion of a formula expressed on the pound basis over into the percentage system is illustrated by the following example:

From the above it can be readily seen that if the amount of flour used were 100 lbs.,—then the actual number of pounds of the other ingredients may be expressed directly as “per cents.”

2. Application of Percentage System to Sponge and Dough Formulas

As explained previously, according to the percentage system the flour used in a formula is taken as a basis and termed 100% and all other ingredients expressed accordingly, depending on the amount of each used relative to the amount of flour. In expressing a straight dough formula according to such a system it is very clear.

Following’ this line of reasoning,—a formula for a dough made according to the sponge and dough method might be expressed in any one of several different ways, three of which are described as follows:

METHOD ONE

Use the total amount of flour in both sponge and dough as a basis and express all other ingredients in terms of percentage accordingly. In other words, the weight of each ingredient multiplied by 100 and divided by the total weight of the flour contained in both the sponge and dough gives the percentage of each.

METHOD TWO

Consider the amount of flour in the sponge separately as 100% and base all other ingredients in the sponge on this expressing each in terms of percentage. In other words, the weight of each ingredient in the sponge is multiplied by 100 and divided by the weight of the flour in the sponge, thus giving the percentage of each ingredient in the sponge according to this method. Consider the dough part separately in the same manner, basing the percentage of each ingredient on the weight of the flour in the dough part only.

METHOD THREE

(a) Use the total flour in both sponge and dough as a basis calling this total amount 100%.

(b) Express the amount of water used in the sponge as a definite percentage based on the amount of flour contained only in the sponge. In other words, the weight of the water used in the sponge is first multiplied by 100. Then this result divided by the weight of flour in the sponge gives the percentage of water used in the sponge expressed according to this method.

(c) The percentage of water shown under the dough represents the total water used in both the sponge and dough based on the total flour used in both sponge and dough. In other words, the weight of water used in both sponge and dough is multiplied by 100 and the resulting figure is then divided by the total weight of flour in both sponge and dough.

(d) The percentage of all other ingredients in sponge or dough (outside of the water) is based on the total amount of flour contained in both sponge and dough. In other words, the percentage of each is secured by multiplying the amount of each called for by 100 and then dividing by the total weight of the flour in both the sponge and dough.

These three different methods of expressing a sponge and dough formula according to the percentage system are illustrated below:—

3. Preference of Method Number 3 in Expressing Sponge and Dough Formulas by the Percentage System

In addition to the 3 methods shown above for expressing a sponge and dough formula according to the percentage system, there are also other possible ways in which the sponge and dough formulas may be expressed in terms of percentages,—but it would only be confusing to discuss them here.

Method three listed above has the advantage of showing the actual percentage absorption in the sponge part alone and also indicates at a glance the consistency of both the sponge and dough after being mixed together. Furthermore, Method No. 3 at the same time shows the percentage of other ingredients based on the total flour in both sponge and dough.

F. BARREL SYSTEM

Some bakers prefer to express their bread doughs formula using the standard barrel of flour as the basis of measurement. A barrel of flour weighs 196 lbs. and therefore a “one barrel dough” is one in which 196 lbs. of flour are employed. Thus, it is seen that the amount of the respective ingredients employed in such a formula are approximately twice the amount of the corresponding ingredients employed in a formula calling for 100 lbs. of flour.

G. EXPANSION OR REDUCTION OF A FORMULA SO AS TO SECURE AMOUNT OF BREAD DESIRED

If it is desired to produce more or less bread than that which is secured from a given formula, it is necessary to enlarge or reduce the size of the dough accordingly.

This of course, can be done by a corresponding proportionate increase or reduction in the amount of ingredients used. For instance, if it is desired to produce a certain amount of bread, it is first necessary to note the yield which has been secured from the formula which has been used. Then the amount of each ingredient specified in this formula should be increased or decreased as the case may be in the same ratio that the number of loaves secured bears to the number of loaves required.

A very simple way of calculating this is as follows:

Divide the number of loaves required by the number of loaves produced from the original formula.

Multiply this result by the amount of each ingredient specified in the original formula.

The resulting amounts of ingredients thus calculated will produce a dough of the proper size to yield the amount of bread required.

Suppose, for instance, that it is desired to expand a formula yielding 150 lbs. of bread so that 441 one pound loaves will be obtained. In this case the neceessary calculation is made as follows:

H. COMPARISON OF PAIL, GALLON, POUND AND PERCENTAGE SYSTEM OF EXPRESSING FORMULAS

1. Examples

In order to show these different systems of expressing formulas in the comparative manner, the following example is given as an illustration:

The pail system is awkward and frequently inaccurate. It does not show in a convenient or clear manner the absorption value of the flour as does the percentage system.

Furthermore, the pail system of measurement is not standardized,— that is, the pail used may be a 10, 12 or 14 quart pail.

In cases where the pail system is used, inaccuracies develop by the spilling of water.

On the other hand, the use of the percentage system shows at a glance, the absorption value of the flour. It is also easier to recognize any errors in the formula and to note whether or not the formula is properly “balanced” when the percentage system is employed.

The percentage system also furnishes a very simple basis for the expansion or reduction of the size of the dough batch by a corresponding increase or reduction in the amounts of ingredients used.

I. DOUGH CHARTS

A dough sheet or chart showing in a clear manner the ingredients going into each dough,—the cost of these materials, the fermentation period, times of “folding over,” the dough temperature employed, the scaling weight, yield, etc., is essential in every bakery.

Samples of dough charts are shown below:

DOUGH CHART

VIII. TABLES

A. UNITED STATES SYSTEM OF LIQUID MEASURES—IMPERIAL SYSTEM OF LIQUID MEASURES—METRIC SYSTEM OF LIQUID MEASURES

1. Conversion Table —

2. Explanation of Conversion Tables

The table of measures stated above may be explained as follows:

1. The left hand or “key” column shows the common units of liquid measures according to the U. S. System, the Imperial or British System and the Metric System.
2. Under Section One will be found the U. S. Measure equivalents of the respective units of measure shown in the “key” column.
3. Under Section Two will be found the Imperial System of Measure equivalents of the respective units of measure shown in the “key” column.
4. Under Section Three will be found the Metric System of Measure equivalents of the respective units of measure shown in the “key”column.
5. Under Section Four will be found the weight of the corresponding volumes of water shown in the “key” column. These weights are stated both in pounds (advoirdupois) and kilograms.

3. Illustration of Use of Tables

(A) How many U. S. quarts are equal to 5 Liters?

In the table it is shown that 1 liter = 1.057 U. S. quarts. Therefore 5 liters is equivalent to 5 x 1.057 or 5.285 quarts.

(B) How many cubic centimeters are equivalent to one U. S. pint and also 1 Imperial pint?

These equivalents can be read directly from the table. One U. S. pint equals 473.2 cubic centimeters, and one Imperial pint equals 567.9 cubic centimeters.

(C ) How many U. S. gallons are equal to 1 Imperial gallon?

This can be read directly from the table. One Imperial gallon equals 1.2 U. S. gallons.

(D) How much does 3 quarts and 1 pint of water (U. S. system) weigh,—expressed in pounds and also in kilograms?

The table shows directly that

• 1 quart of water weighs 2.08 lbs. or 0.946 kilograms
• and 1 pint of water weighs 1.04 or 0.473 kilograms

Therefore—3 quarts and 1 pint of water would weigh

• 3 x 2.08 + 1.04 or 7.28 lbs.
• or 3 x 0.946 + 0.473 or 3.3 kilograms.

This question could also be solved as follows:—

• 3 quarts and 1 pint = 7 pints
• 1 pint of water weighs 1.04 lbs.
• 7 pints of water weighs 7.28 lbs.

or

• 1 pint of water weighs 0.473 kilograms
• 7 pints of water weighs 3.3 kilograms.

B. CONVERSION OF FAHRENHEIT DEGREES TO CENTIGRADE DEGREES OF TEMPERATURE

RULE: Subtract 32 from Fahrenheit degrees.

Multiply the result by⁵⁄₉ to give corresponding degrees Centigrade.

C. CONVERSION OF CENTIGRADE DEGREES OF TEMPERATURE TO FAHRENHEIT DEGREES OF TEMPERATURE

RULE: Multiply Centigrade degrees by⁹⁄₅ and then add 32 to give the corresponding number of Fahrenheit degrees.

D. CONVERSION OF AVOIRDUPOIS SYSTEM OF WEIGHTS TO METRIC SYSTEM OF WEIGHTS

• 1 pound or 16 ounces = 453.6 grams or 0.454 kilograms
• 1 ounce or 0.0625 lbs. = 28.35 grams or 0.0283 kilograms

E. CONVERSION OF METRIC SYSTEM OF WEIGHTS TO AVOIRDUPOIS SYSTEM OF WEIGHTS

• 1 kilogram = 2.205 lb. or 35.28 ounces
• 1 gram = 0.002 lbs. or 0.035 ounces

F. CONVERSION OF OUNCES TO POUNDS AND POUNDS TO OUNCES

RULE:

• (a) To change ounces to pounds,—divide by 16
• (b) To change pounds to ounces,—multiply by 16

IX. EXAMINATION OF BREAD

It is obviously impossible to designate any one particular type of bread as the universal “perfect loaf” inasmuch as the exact characteristics constituting quality in bread may be different in different localities.

The loaf characteristics which should be strived for in any one particular section of the country can only be determined by a study of the factors which make it “sell” in that vicinity.

This requires a first hand knowledge of just what the discriminating housewife wants insofar as the character of bread is concerned and can only be secured by careful observation and survey.

In other words, an accurate analysis of the local market is the necessary forerunner of successful bread production and sales by the commercial baker.

After the baker is sure that he knows just the type of loaf which is desired and is in a position to produce such a loaf, it is important to examine sample loaves of each batch produced to see if they are up to standard. In doing this it is usually advisable to consider certain very definite characteristics such as the following:

1. VOLUME

From a given weight of dough the most satisfactory loaf volume to be secured is one which corresponds to maintenance of the best texture and grain of the loaf. A loaf of excessive volume will generally be found to possess open grain and weak texture. A loaf whose volume is too small will also generally be found to possess inferior grain and texture.

The volume of a loaf can be described as satisfactory—too large or too small.

2. COLOR OF CRUST

The color of crust is often termedbloom.The color of crust desired is usually a golden brown, and is mainly dependent on the temperature at which the loaf is baked and the amount of sugar present in the dough when baked. Undesirable colors of crust may be designated as too dark, “foxy,” reddish brown, grayish or pale straw color.

3. EVENNESS OF BAKE

This means the uniformity of “bake” on all sides of the loaf. Excessive top heat in the oven will result in a dark top crust while the sides and bottom may be pale. Evenness of bake may be designated as—“evenly baked,—pale top, sides or bottom—or—dark top, sides or bottom.”

4. SYMMETRY OF FORM

In purchasing bread the housewife is often influenced by the shape or symmetry of the loaf.

If satisfactory this characteristic may be designated as “symmetrical.” Some factors which detract from the “Symmetry of form” are as follows:— protruding sides or ends,—flat top,—too high,—too wide,—too narrow,— low ends,—and sharp corners.

5. BREAK AND SHRED

The break and shred of a loaf have an important bearing on the general appearance of the loaf. An even shredded break is desirable on the sides and ends of plain top bread. The shredded break in a split top loaf will be through the center of the top and at the ends.

Faulty bread and shred may be designated as:—wild break at sides or ends,—break on one side,—no shred on ends,—blind shred (split top), and “shell” crust.

6. CHARACTER OF CRUST

A desirable character of crust may be described as tender, even surface and uniform thickness.

Some faults in the character of crust are as follows:—too highly glazed or varnish-like,—tough,—leathery,—checked,—cracked,—too thick, —and too hard.

7. GRAIN

This refers to the internal appearance of a cross section of the loaf insofar as its porosity,—size, shape and distribution of air cells are concerned.

Thus the grain of a loaf may be described by the following expressions :—“close,”—“even,”—“uniform,”—“thin cell walls,”—“open,”—“not uniform,”—“thick cell walls,”—“coarse,”—“large holes.”

8. COLOR OF CRUMB

The color of crumb is determined by examining closely the color of the surface of the interior of the loaf when cut or sliced. A creamy white color of crumb is usually desired. Other terms used to describe the color of crumb are:—“chalky or dead white,”—“yellow,”—“grey,”—“dark,”— “streaked and spotted.”

The color of crumb is influenced to some extent by the grain of the loaf. A fine, close and even grain enhances the whiteness of crumb color.

9. TEXTURE

Texture is often confused with grain. Texture is actually the “feel” of the surface of the interior of the loaf when cut or sliced. Thus a desirable texture may be designated by such terms as “velvety,” “silky,” “soft,” and “elastic.” An inferior texture is often described by such terms as “rough,” “furry,” “harsh,” “doughy,” “brittle,” “crumbly,” and “lumpy.”

The texture of a loaf is determined by pressing the fingers against, and rubbing them across the cut surface of the loaf.

10.  AROMA

The aroma or odor of a loaf is determined by carefully smelling of the same. Some people designate aroma as flavor.

Aroma may be described as “wheaty,” “malty,” “pleasant,” “sweet,” “acetic” or “sour,” “cheesy,” “musty,” “moldy,” “ropy,” or “rancid.”

11.  TASTE

This is actually the taste of the loaf when eaten. It can be described by the use of some of the following terms:—“wheaty,” “nutty,” “pleasant,” “sweet,” “sour,” “flat,” “acid” or “sour” and “rancid.”

The aroma and taste of a loaf are closely allied characteristics.

X. BREAD FAULTS AND SOME CAUSES

FOREWORD

Several ordinary bread faults encountered by the baker are listed below, and some of the more common causes of these faults are stated.

In striving to eliminate any of the following faults, it is inadvisable, of course, to attempt to change all the factors indicated as possible causes at the same time. The situation should be studied carefully and each possible cause should be investigated separately until the exact reason for the trouble is located. Of course, certain cases may exist where the occurrence of these bread faults may be brought about by other causes than those stated below. Therefore, when certain specific bread faults are noticed, they should be carefully investigated and if they are found not to be caused by any of the reasons herein stated,—the actual reason for the difficulty should be determined and corrected.

A. LACK OF VOLUME

1. Insufficient Yeast
2. Too Much Salt
3. Improper Mixing
4. 4Extremely Old Dough
5. Dough Too Young
6. Dough Chilled During Fermentation Period
7. Excessive “Punishment” of Dough in Machines
8. Dough Loaves Too Small for Pans
9. Underproofed
10. Oven Temperature Too High

B. TOO MUCH VOLUME

1. Insufficient Salt
2. Dough Loaves Too Large for Pan
3. Excessive Proof
4. Oven Temperature Too Low

C. CRUST COLOR TOO PALE

1. Insufficient Sugar or Malt
2. Dough Too Old
3. Temperature of Dough Too High During Fermentation
4. Dough Allowed to Crust in Proof Box
5. Insufficient Humidity in Proof Box
6. Oven Temperature Too Low

D. CRUST COLOR TOO DARK

1. Excessive Amount of Sugar
2. Dough Taken Too Young
3. Oven Temperature Too High

E. CRUST BLISTERS

1. Young Dough Overproofed
2. Careless Moulding
3. Condensation of Steam in Oven

F. CRUST TOO THICK

1. Dough Too Old
2. Deficiency of Sugar or Malt
3. Crusting of Dough in Proof
4. Oven Temperature Too Low
5. Baking Period Too Long

G. SHELLING OF TOP CRUST

1. Green Flour
2. Dough Too Stiff
3. Dough Too Young
4. Too Short Pan Proof
5. Crusting of Dough in Proof
6. High Pressure Steam in Oven

H. LACK OF SHRED

1. Doughs Improperly Fermented, Either Too Young or Too Old
2. Excessive Amount of Steam in Proof
3. Excessive Proof
4. No Steam in Oven

I. GREY CRUMB COLOR

1. Too High a Dough Temperature
2. Too Long a Fermentation Period
3. Overproofed Dough

J. STREAKY CRUMB

1. Unsifted Flour
2. Poor Blending of Flour
3. Improper Mixing of Dough
4. Too Much Grease in Divider
5. Too Much Dusting Flour on Molder
6. Inclusion of Small Pieces of Scrap Dough Picked up in Machines
7. Crusting of Dough Before Baking

K.  COARSE GRAIN

1. Doughs Too Old
2. Doughs Too Slack
3. Improper Moulding
4. Over Proofing
5. Pans Too Large for Dough Loaf
6. Oven Temperature Too Low

L. POOR TEXTURE—CRUMBLY BREAD

1. Old Doughs
2. Dough Temperature Too High
3. Over Proofing
4. Temperature of Proof Box Too High
5. Oven Temperature Too Low

M. POOR TASTE AND FLAVOR

1. Inferior Ingredients
2. Improperly Balanced Formula
3. 3nsufficient Salt
4. Doughs Too Old
5. Dough Temperature Too High
6. Uncleanliness in Bakery
7. Improper Storage Conditions

N. POOR KEEPING QUALITIES

1. Improper Absorption
2. Poor Quality Ingredients
3. Insufficient Milk, Malt or Shortening
4. Improper Mixing
5. Too High Dough Temperatures
6. Dough Too Old
7. Over Proofing
8. Oven Temperature Too Low

O. HOLES IN BREAD

While there are several common factors in bread making which may be responsible for the occurrence of large undesirable holes or air pockets in bread, the trouble during some years is more prevalent than others and occasionally does not seem to be corrected even after the ordinary precautions are taken.

Quite often, the use of short time doughs, the maintenance of cooler dough temperatures, and the employment of Diamalt in the dough batch will prove of considerable help in eliminating this trouble.

Some of the common causes of holes in bread are as follows:—

1. Use of flour which has been stored too long.
2. Use of flour which has been exposed to unduly cold temperatures.
3. Improper blending or blending of flours unsuited to each other.
4. Too heavy greasing of troughs.
5. Overaging of sponge or dough.
6. Excessively high dough temperatures.
7. Excessive amounts of dusting flour.
8. Irregular flow of dusting flour.
9. Excessive grease in moulder.
10. Faulty adjustment of rolls of moulder.

XI. THE FOOD VALUE OF BREAD

A. THE IMPORTANCE OF THE FOOD VALUE OF BREAD

Nutritive value is becoming more and more often the deciding factor in the purchase of foods. The nutritive value of different foods is taught to school children and frequently becomes the subject of newspaper and magazine articles and the daily conversation in the home. The modern housewife takes into consideration the relative food value of the various articles of diet which she places on her table. The excellent nutritive qualities possessed by bread therefore constitute valuable advertising and sales arguments which should not be overlooked. Hence the reasons why “Bread is Man’s Best Food” should be known by every enterprising baker and presented by him to the public in a convincing manner.

B. FOODS DEFINED AND EXPLAINED

Foods are those substances which, when taken into the body supplj the necessary elements for the promotion of growth and the repair oJ tissue, yield energy for muscular work, supply heat and regulate the bodj processes.

Foods should be wholesome, palatable, economical and easily digest ible. Various food components are needed to make up a balanced diet anc to maintain the body in a normal state of nutrition.

They must be supplied first in proper quantities or proportions anc second, they must be of the proper variety or quality. Let us considei each of these vital nutrient substances separately:

1. Carbohydrates

These are mainly starches and sugars. They furnish energy for th< human machine.

2. Fats

In conjunction with carbohydrates, fats supply fuel for the body.

3. Proteins

This class of nutrients build up muscles and replace the worn out bodj tissues.

4. Mineral Salts

These are necessary in order to sustain our bones, teeth and hair.

5. Vitamins

These are accessory food factors which aid in regulating the body processes and without which man could not live.                                                  *-

In conjunction with the above nutrients, of course an ample amount of water is needed daily in order that life and growth may be continued.

C. BREAD’S PLACE IN THE DIET

While the expression “Man can not live by bread alone” is quite true, most people would be amazed if they could only realize how closely good bakers’ bread comes toward being in itself a completely balanced food. This fact is clearly illustrated by the following table:

From a nutritive standpoint, malt extract and milk are very valuable additions to the dough batch. In addition to their other valuable qualities these two ingredients supply essential vitamins and mineral salts to the finished loaf.

Yeast is not only an especially valuable food in itself—and represents one of the richest sources of Vitamin B known, but it is the action of the yeast in the dough which is responsible for the creation of the desirable bread flavor and for the ease of the digestibility of bread.

The nutritive value contributed to bread by the various ingredients used is discussed in detail in the various preceding chapters concerning these respective materials.

*Note:—The exact amount of the different nutrients required daily by different people in order to maintain normal health and growth varies considerably and is partially dependent on the weight of the person as well as the nature of his work and exercise. These figures therefore are only roughly approximate.

**Note:—The amount of mineral matter required depends upon the nature of the mineral salts supplied. The body not only needs a sufficiency of mineral matter but also a proper variety of the same.

D. BREAD IS AN ENERGY FOOD

The chief need of the body is energy. The human body is Nature’s most wonderful machine. Just as the steam engine must be supplied with fuel, so also the human machine needs fuel in order to keep it going. Fully eighty-five percent of the food we eat is used solely to supply energy and at least two-thirds of the energy produced by the human organism is derived from the carbohydrates. “Not without warrant,” says an eminent physiologist, “is bread considered the staff of life.” Bread also contains shortening, another energy food. Let us note in passing then, that bread supplies the most important need of the body,—energy.

E BREAD IS A MUSCLE BUILDING FOOD

Bread not only supplies energy but also material for growth and repair. All the proteins or muscle-building material are not equally valuable, but wheat protein, mostly gluten, ranks with the best of vegetable origin. None of them is perfect, but supplemented with milk, good bread can supply all the body requirements in this respect; hence the importance of using plenty of milk in bread. The protein of malt extract is different from that of wheat and is a most valuable nutritive adjunct in baker’s bread.

F. BREAD IS EASILY DIGESTED AND ASSIMILATED

The gluten of wheat flour is a most remarkable substance which is able to hold the gas formed by the action of yeast on the sugars in the dough. Due to this action, yeast raised bread is light, porous and very easily digested. Owing to its open nature, its disintegration is practically complete before mastication and the digestive juices can penetrate to its innermost particles. The cooking of the starch at the temperature of boiling water bursts the starch cells and increases the ease of digestion. The ease of digestibility of bread is equalled by the completeness of its digestion. Bread contains no skin, bran, husk or shell to be thrown away; no pits, seeds, core or fibre to be discarded; no bones or gristle to be rejected.           Good bread is practically entirely digestible and assimilable.

G. BREAD IS AN ECONOMICAL FOOD

Bread, the food without waste, is unequalled from the viewpoint of economy. It is delivered to the consumer ready to serve, no mixing, no baking, no preparation, so that its food value may be based directly on the original cost.

H. VARIETY BREADS

No one food,—even bread, constitutes in itself a perfectly balanced ration, complete in every particular. There must always be other foods to supply the few things which bread lacks. Each has its place to fill and bread is perfectly adapted to occupy the largest place in the nutrition of the human race.

Furthermore, people are now demanding more than ever before, a variety in practically every daily commodity. This is especially true in regard to food and there exists an excellent opportunity for the baker to build up his sales by producing a variety in bread to meet this ever-growing demand.

Yeast raised sweet dough products furnish the baker with an ideal way in which to secure this variety bread market,—provided, however, that such products are of high quality and properly merchandized.